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Guidelines for Working Effectively with Students with Learning DisabilitiesThe Australian National University - May 1994
AcknowledgmentThe Australian National University and the University of Canberra would like to express their gratitude to the Equal Opportunity Unit at Monash University, Victoria, for permission to reproduce this guide. In particular, thanks go to the Project Committee, the Project Consultant and Assistants who prepared the original booklet.Project Committee Dr Margaret
James - Manager, Equal Opportunity Unit, Monash University (Convener) Project Consultant Associate Professor Stewart Sykes - Director, Krongold Centre, Faculty of Education, Monash University Project Assistants Ms Amanda Russell
(until December, 1992) The Project Committee was particularly indebted to the many people within Monash University and at other institutions in Australia and overseas who responded to an initial survey in 1992 and/or provided detailed comments on early drafts of this document. The time and valuable insights offered by these researchers, writers, academic and support staff in the field of learning disabilities have contributed significantly to this publication. However, they cannot be held responsible for any inaccuracies or oversights in the final document. The cover has been changed in keeping with a series of resource guides produced by the ACT universities. Funding for this project has been from a joint grant for Disabilities, allocated to The Australian National University and the University of Canberra from the Department of Employment Education and Training through the Higher Education and Equity Program. ForewordA commitment to promoting access and equity for people with disabilities was expressed by the Vice Chancellor of Monash University, Professor Logan in the foreword to the original booklet "Learning Disabilities and Higher Education."We endorse this sentiment and agree that the area of specific learning disabilities is one that is little understood. This booklet will be a valuable resource for academic and study skills staff, as well as students in the management of this complex issue, and we commend it to you.
Introduction
BackgroundResearchers in the fields of medicine, psychology and education have studied children and, to a much lesser extent, adolescents with learning problems since the early 1890s.In 1963, Samuel A Kirk, a prominent psychologist and special educator in the United States, questioned the appropriateness, for educational purposes, of the many medically oriented terms such as dyslexia, congenital word blindness and minimal brain dysfunction. Instead he proposed the term 'learning disabilities'. This term has gained acceptance but the rapidly developing area of special education has been marked by considerable uncertainties, especially with regard to the development of an accepted definition and methods of assessment and identification of the condition. In 1973, the United States Government passed its Rehabilitation Act, section 504 of which legislated for equal access for students with disabilities, including those with learning disabilities, to higher education. Accommodations required under this Act include modifications to the way lecturers present information and the methods by which faculties assess students' learning, allowing students to tape-record lectures and providing extended time for examinations. Accommodations which are not required (but increasingly provided) include: priority registration; comprehensive assessment; special academic advice; advocacy; developmental courses and workshops in reading, written language and study skills; tutoring; note-takers and personal counselling. Perhaps predictably, this legislation has resulted in a marked increase in the amount of research and literature emanating from the United States over the past 20 years in the area of learning disabilities, particularly with regard to adults with learning disabilities. At the same time, there has been a significant increase in the number of students with learning disabilities attending colleges and universities in the United States and an increase in available services and accommodations. In fact, students with learning disabilities are now the fastest growing group of students with disabilities in the higher education student population (Gajar 1992). 'Accommodations' The term 'accommodation' is used frequently in the literature from the United States and it appears to be gaining acceptance in Australia (Macquarie University, The University of New South Wales, The University of Sydney & The University of Technology, Sydney 1992 and The Australian National University 1993a & 1993b). Broadly, the term is used to refer to any adjustment to an institution's systems or administrative, learning and physical environments made in order to ensure access and equity for people with disabilities. Review of the Literature A review of available literature reveals the following recurrent themes:
In Australia, it is difficult to gauge the situation concerning higher education for students with learning disabilities. The lack of clarity in definitions and uncertainty about the criteria for identification of the condition has meant that different sub-groups (students with intellectual disability and learning difficulties) being included in sample populations. This confusion has resulted in unreliable Australian statistics. Within higher educations institutions in Australia various categories of students with disabilities have had access to support. Currently, however, support for students with learning disabilities is virtually non-existent beyond the primary school years. Largely as a result of this lack of recognition of learning disabilities and a lack of appropriate services at secondary levels of schooling, relatively few students with learning disabilities aspire to or attain a place at a university. More resources need to be concentrated at the secondary level to ensure that students with learning disabilities have the opportunity to participate in higher education. The passage of the Australian Disability Discrimination Act in 1992 is likely to standardise approaches to support for people with disabilities across Australia and perhaps galvanise resources for appropriate services and further research.
Anti-Discrimination Legislation in AustraliaFrom 1 March, 1993, discrimination based on disability is unlawful under the Federal Disability Discrimination Act (DDA).Discrimination means treating people with a disability less favourably than people without that disability would be treated under the same circumstances. Discrimination also exists where there is a condition or requirement imposed, which may be the same for everyone but which unfairly excludes or disadvantages people with a disability (Human Rights Australia 1993). The Act makes it unlawful for an educational authority such as a university to discriminate on the ground of the person's disability:
Exceptions to these provision are only allowed if the student with a disability requires services or facilities which would impose unjustifiable hardship on the university or if participation in higher education would prove to be a risk to the student or others. Different treatment of people with disabilities is not unlawful where it is reasonably intended to ensure that they have equal opportunities or to meet their special needs. Harassment on the basis of disability is unlawful in employment, education and in the provision of goods and services (Human Rights Australia 1993). The Cost of Providing Support The DDA allows for exemptions in cases of unjustifiable hardship for the institution. In determining what constitutes unjustifiable hardship, all relevant circumstances of the particular case will be taken into account. These will include the financial circumstances and the estimated amount of expenditure required to be made by the educational institution; and, in the case of the provision of services, or the making available of facilities - an action plan given to the Commission (Human Rights Australia 1993). The costs associated with providing support services for students with different disabilities vary greatly. For example, students who are deaf may require signing interpreters for lectures and tutorials and other services at a median cost of $11,000 per year whereas students with personal health limitations may require a different range of services at an median annual cost of $1200 (Andrews & Smith 1992). However, it is unlikely that the Disability Discrimination Commissioner would consider expenditure of this order to constitute an unjustifiable hardship for any higher education institution (Hastings 1993). Therefore, in most cases, universities will be required to find ways and the means of accommodating the requirements of students with disabilities.
Aims and Objectives of the ProjectThese guidelines have been developed for staff in higher education institutions in Australia. This project aimed to:
This booklet offers an overview of learning disabilities and suggests a number of specific strategies for academic, administrative and advisory staff to facilitate appropriate support for students with learning disabilities. The overall objective is to develop a 'mainstream' rather than a 'remediation' approach to support for students with learning disabilities which will maintain academic standards and ensure that the responsibility for providing necessary support does not fall solely on the shoulders of academic staff in higher education. Methodology At the commencement of the project, a management group of experienced staff from relevant departments at Monash University was formed and a project consultant was invited to assist the Committee. Initially, involvement was also sought from Dandenong College of Technical and Further Education. However, although their representative was of great assistance to the Committee and project assistants, it was found that the needs of staff teaching students with learning disabilities in the TAFE sector were very different. The Committee decided to focus on the interests of university staff. The Committee refined the objectives of the project, employed a project assistant and met regularly to provide advice and support. A survey was conducted of the views and experiences of disability support staff in all universities in Australia. The response rate was just over 80%. A report of the responses prepared by the project co-ordinator guided the project and formed the basis of much of this document. A limited literature search was also carried out. A draft of the guidelines was distributed to more than 30 people with experience and expertise in the field of learning disabilities in Australia and overseas. The working definition of learning disabilities used was 'severe and prolonged difficulties in the acquisition and development of expected literacy, numeracy and reasoning skills given at least average intelligence and the absence of other obvious causal factors'. Terminology In recent years, the terms 'learning difficulty', 'learning disability', 'specific learning difficulty' and 'specific learning disabilities' have been used interchangeably to refer to the same population, and at other times, to refer to completely different groups. In an attempt to avoid confusion, the term 'learning disabilities' will be used throughout the guidelines. For the purposes of brevity, the term will be abbreviated to LD when referring to the subjects of the document.
Overview of Learning DisabilitiesDefinitions"Educational definitions in the field of learning difficulties have been characterised by rapid change in fashion, and further change seems inevitable." (Australia, Parliament 1976, p.11). Since 1963, when Kirk coined the term 'learning disabilities', 11 major definitions have been proposed by leading authorities and key committees and numerous others have been provided by researchers and writers. Most definitions have originated in the United States (Hammill 1990). For some time the most commonly used definition was that formulated in 1968 by the (US) National Advisory Committee on Handicapped Children and endorsed by United States Federal Government in 1975 (Vogel 1993). This definition was developed primarily for the purpose of guiding funding practices associated with United States' federal school legislation. Consequently, its emphasis on school-age children and academic difficulties does not provide a view broad enough to include the effects of learning disabilities on adults. In recognition that LD is a life-long condition, The United States of America National Joint Committee for Learning Disabilities (NJCLD) proposed the following definition in 1981. Learning disabilities is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span. Problems in self-regulatory behaviors, social perception, and social interaction may exist with learning disabilities but do not by themselves constitute a learning disability. Although learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (for example, sensory impairment, mental retardation, serious emotional disturbance) or with extrinsic influences (such as cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate teaching methods), they are not the result of those conditions or influences (Hammill et al. 1981, p.336). Due to general support by professional organisations, the NJCLD definition is the most widely used, partly because of its lifespan perspective. However, there is no universally accepted definition of learning disabilities. As a result of this uncertainty, the term 'earning disabilities' is often confused or used interchangeably with 'learning difficulties'. However, learning difficulties is a much broader term which refers to problems in developmental and academic skills which may arise from one or more of the following factors: intellectual disability, physical disability, inappropriate learning environment or emotional difficulties. The key difference between learning difficulties and learning disabilities is that the latter is presumed to arise from neurological rather than intellectual, physical or sensory impairment. In the absence of any Australian equivalent, these guidelines focus on the needs of students with learning disabilities as defined by the NJCLD. However, this is not to say that higher education students who experience learning difficulties do not also merit appropriate accommodations and support. Prevalence of Learning DisabilitiesEstimates of the prevalence of learning disabilities anywhere are rendered inaccurate and difficult to compare by the lack of a universally accepted definition.The United States Department of Education (1989) estimated that approximately 3% of college and university students have learning disabilities (Houck, Asselin, Troutman, & Arrington 1992). In Canada, students with LD who actually request higher education support services make up about 0.5% of the total student population (McConnell 1991). In Australian schools, statistics for students with LD are unreliable because the criteria applied for learning disabilities vary from State to State and include intellectual disability and/or learning difficulties (Andrews 1991; Andrews & Smith 1992). Sykes (1982) estimates the proportion to be 3-5% with males outnumbering females by perhaps 4:1. Although statistics are unreliable, the presence of students with LD in Australian secondary school populations is acknowledged. Special consideration arrangements for students with LD in Years 11 & 12 assessments are in place in most state curriculum and assessment guidelines and tertiary admission application systems. An accurate estimate of the proportion of higher education students with learning disabilities is made even more difficult by the facts that:
Currently, the figure in Australian universities is thought to be perhaps 1 in 1,000 or .001%. Compare this to the United States figure of 3%. There is consensus that identified students with LD are the fastest growing group of students with disabilities receiving support services in universities in the United States (Gajar 1992). This trend has been noted in Australian universities by disability support units (Noble 1993). It is to be expected that, as integration and support programs develop in secondary and tertiary education improve and expand, Australian participation rates of students with learning disabilities will approach those in the United States. Indicators of Learning Disabilities"For the purposes of assisting the children or adults with learning problems it is necessary to identify each individual's problem and to treat it." (Australia, Parliament 1976, p.12)Problems similar to those with defining learning disabilities exist for the recognition of indicators of learning disabilities. There are no generally accepted or precise characteristics of learning disabilities. However, a number of studies in the United States have established correlations between the characteristics listed below and learning disabilities (Gajar 1992). The most commonly used indicators in an educational setting are: severe and prolonged difficulties with reading, spelling, written expression and/or mathematical calculations and reasoning but there are a number of other characteristics associated with these (Sykes 1982; Mangrum & Strichart 1988a; Smith 1991). The following section lists a number of abilities and describes the effect of learning disabilities on each one. The list is not comprehensive. It should also be emphasised that not all characteristics apply to any one student and that each student will reveal a different pattern of difficulties. In fact, students may appear to have deficiencies in one or several of academic and general ability areas and strengths in others.
Academic DifficultiesThese refer to difficulties in the acquisition and development of academic abilities. Performance is usually slow and/or irregular in one or more areas. The most frequently reported difficulties are listed below:Reading
Some students with LD may experience apparent blank spots on the page or words merging or moving when reading. Such occurrences result in significant difficulties in completing reading tasks and comprehending and retaining large amounts of unfamiliar written material. Spelling
Students with LD at higher education level have usually developed strategies for mastering new course-specific terminology. However, the fatigue or stress which often exists under examination conditions may result in misspelling of common words. Written Expression
Students with LD may display poor written expression in the form of incorrect sequencing of words and/or an apparent disregard for writing conventions such as the use of upper and lower case letters. Mathematical
Despite gaining entry to the higher education sector, students with LD may continue to have difficulty with setting out problems coherently and distinguishing between mathematical signs such as () and () or (-) and (+). Serial Learning
This problem affects the ability of the student to gain a sense of the order of events or to follow instructions, a formula or an experiment. Handwriting
Learning disabilities may cause students to develop a faulty pen grasp or awkward writing position. These may contribute to fatigue and lack of confidence in written exercises. Study Skills and Organisation
Students with LD may have difficulties assessing how long a task or journey will take. For tertiary students, this may result in lateness with assignments or for lectures or examinations. Limited study and organisation skills may also contribute to stress levels, anxiety and/or variable test performance. As a result of any one or a number of these academic difficulties, students with LD may have problems maintaining consistent performance rates.
Associated DifficultiesThese refer to problems in the acquisition or retention of cognitive abilities, psycho-dynamic functions and social skills. Typically, once again, development is slow and/or irregular in one or several areas. The more frequently reported difficulties are listed below:Motor
Students with LD may display poor coordination and, as a result, have severe difficulties with practical and laboratory exercises. Speech
Although not as common as other characteristics, students with LD may display motor-related problems with maintaining appropriate speech intonation and patterns. Perception
Students with LD may find it difficult to comprehend spoken language or respond to a visual stimulus such as is required when copying information or reading a map or graph. Conceptual
Students with LD may find problems in processing and retaining new concepts and in identifying essential task requirements or comprehending systems such a library catalogues. Communication
Attention
LD may affect students' ability to concentrate for long periods of time. In addition, they may fatigue easily.
Other ImplicationsSocial and Emotional
As a result of social and emotional difficulties students with LD may appear to lack motivation and experience problems establishing interpersonal relationships with staff and other students. Positive Attributes Although most studies of students with LD focus on the problems they may experience and exhibit, it is important to recognise that learning disabilities are variable. Consequently, these students are often strong performers at a higher education level because of:
Identification of Students with Learning DisabilitiesIdentification of students with learning disabilities is essential for the development and implementation of appropriate accommodations and support services for these students.Ideally, students with LD entering higher education from school will do so with a complete assessment of their disabilities and recommendations regarding their needs. However, for many students, learning disabilities may only become evident at tertiary level where coping strategies developed at school break down in a new educational environment. The group which is least likely to have been assessed or to have developed compensatory learning strategies are those who come to universities as mature-age students.
Formal or Clinical IdentificationFormal identification of LD involves psychological and educational assessment of general intellectual ability and basic academic abilities (reading, spelling, written expression, handwriting and mathematic calculation and reasoning). A number of tests may be used to assess all of these abilities including:
The assessment process can help students to understand the nature of their learning disabilities, how they are manifested and what accommodations and strategies may be necessary for success at university level.
Informal IdentificationAcademic, administrative and advisory staff are not expected to be involved in the identification process but it may be useful if they can recognise general indicators of learning disabilities.If students appear to have severe discrepancies between their level of achievement and apparent intellectual ability or other problems which resemble learning disabilities, it is important that all staff are aware of any services and resources which provide assessment and support for students or advice and training for members of staff working with students with LD.
Self IdentificationMany students are not aware that they have learning disabilities or that their educational experiences are necessarily different from their peers. Other students may be aware of their learning disabilities but are reluctant to identify themselves or to request accommodations and support services.It should be noted that while students may inform disability support staff about their learning disabilities, they may wish to function anonymously among their peers and academic staff. Therefore, as much as is possible, it is important to maintain confidentiality in all communications about accommodations and support for students with LD.
Strategies for Accommodating Students with Learning DisabilitiesThis section outlines a number of strategies and accommodations which could be undertaken by academic staff and administrators in order to assist students with LD to achieve their educational goals. A number of the strategies may be common practice in some universities (McConnell 1992).The term 'reasonable accommodation' is usually taken to mean the adjustment of elements of courses and course requirements by academic staff. However, different accommodations should be the responsibility of various sections of the institution. For example, faculty handbooks can provide useful information for students with LD about requirements, the frequency and length of classes, expected work load and possible subject substitutes before selecting courses.
Teaching and Assessment StrategiesIn addressing the needs of students with LD the emphasis is on 'good' rather than necessarily 'extra' teaching approaches because most students with LD can perform successfully after minor adjustments or modifications to teaching and assessment methods. Invariably, what is 'good' for students with LD is also good for all students.Accommodating students with LD should not entail reducing educational standards and requirements. Rather the aim may be:
Some aspects of learning disabilities can be addressed through a variety of teaching methods which most academic staff use as a matter of course. However, these have been included amongst the strategies listed in order to emphasise their importance to this group of students. Strategies which are of particular value to students with LD have been marked with an asterisk.
Teaching StrategiesBefore Semester: Preparing and Planning Lectures, Seminars and Tutorials
During Semester: Giving Lectures, Seminars and Tutorials
Assessment StrategiesAssignments:
Examinations:
It must be reiterated that while students with LD should receive appropriate accommodations and support, it is not suggested that basic or 'inherent' requirements of a course be reduced. Faculties will need to consider this issue in relation to each course they offer.
Administrative StrategiesThe senior administration and general staff in a tertiary institution can assist in ensuring access and equity for students with LD in a number of important ways:
Support Program for Students with LDEstablishing a comprehensive program or support network for students with LD at university may involve the following campus departments:
It is important to note that, generally, as soon as identification and support programs are established, people come forward with problems in the area. In fact, when an initial service is provided, many more people are found to be in need of the program or service than would be suggested by current prevalence rates. This phenomenon has been observed in widely differing areas of disability support and there is no reason to expect learning disabilities to be different (McConnell 1992). Some measures of the effectiveness of a program for students with LD may be:
Professional DevelopmentAccess and equity for students with LD is largely dependent on the attitudes and competencies of academic, administrative and advisory staff (Norlander et al. 1990) However, because few staff in higher education have had experience in working with students with LD, they may require additional information and enhanced skills to work effectively with this group.Professional development programs need to cover a number of areas: (1) Information about:
(2) Skills enhancement in:
(1) Information Houck et al. (1992) found that information is needed to demystify learning disabilities and to refute misconceptions held by some staff in universities. These include assumptions that students with LD are lazy or intellectually disabled, have emotional difficulties or can outgrow their disability. Others believe that providing accommodations for students with LD will compromise university educational standards or discriminate against the rest of the student population. These concerns should be allayed. It may also be valuable to include information about adaptive technology (hardware and software such as MACCESS and Soundproof) which allows for higher levels of self-management for students with LD. (2) Skills enhancement In Australia, some universities run professional development programs which focus on enhancing the way lecturers present information, the manner in which students acquire knowledge and the methods by which faculties assess students' learning. These programs are usually run by staff development centres within universities known by different names. Many university teachers hold negative academic expectations for students with LD but, more particularly, they are pessimistic about their ability to teach them (Gajar c.1986). Academic staff who are interested in enhancing their teaching skills could contact the relevant centre in their university to ascertain what programs are offered. (3) Attitudes The professional development of staff working with students with LD should focus not only on the inclusion of appropriate teaching, assessment and administrative strategies, but also on the development of appropriate attitudes towards these students by all staff. In the United States, attitudinal changes have been facilitated by increasing exposure to students with LD and professional development programs, in-service workshops, seminars and awareness training programs (Houck et al. 1992). Australian university staff have had limited experience in working with students with LD and, like other members of society, they possess a range of attitudes towards people with disabilities. Some staff may see students with LD as inappropriate consumers of higher education; conversely, others may value and encourage these students. It is this latter attitude which needs to be fostered.
Self-Help StrategiesA number of self-help strategies for students with LD are attached as an appendix.
Other ResourcesIf it appears that a student has difficulties related to learning disabilities or a student advises that he has LD, it is important that academic, administrative and advisory staff discuss with the student and disability support units specific requirements that the student may have.
Specialised ServicesThis section provides an overview of the nature and location of services which may be available to provide support for staff working with students with LD and the students themselves.Disability Liaison Office Throughout Australia, staff who work with students with disabilities use a variety of titles and belong to different sections within institutions. Some of the more common titles are: Disability Liaison Officer; Disability Liaison Officer; and Student Counsellor. The main duties of Disability Liaison Officers include:
Disability Liaison Officers may also co-ordinate the employment of note-takers, readers and scribes and assist students to arrange alternative assessments. Language and Learning Units Language and learning units offer support in developing written language and study skills. Specifically, they tutor students in the skills required for successful progression through courses, for example, workshops addressing writing techniques or report presentation. At an individual level, the unit will provide support and tuition in students' problem areas. For some students this may entail re-learning reading principles and for others, assistance with specific assignments. Counselling Personal: Counselling programs usually focus on the development of independence through specific skill training. In counselling students with LD, programs may usefully address the following issues:
Careers: It is very important that careers counsellors are well-informed about the difficulties experienced by people with LD and be able to assist these students to work constructively towards appropriate employment. General Services and Internal GroupsLibrariesMany campus libraries have support staff to assist students with scanning or photocopying material. Because of particular directional problems, students with LD may also have problems in locating material in journals and card catalogues. Most institutions have computerised library catalogues and staff may need to assist students with LD to familiarise themselves with commands necessary to locate material. In addition, students may require extensive audio-taped or video-taped materials, assistance in selecting material and extensions of library loans. Faculty Administration and Student Advisers Faculty administration is well situated to generate policies and devise procedures for the accommodation of students with LD. Faculty staff and student advisers need to be aware of the difficulties experienced by students with LD and able to assist with the choice of courses and appropriate accommodations. Advisers also need to be aware of specialised support services available on campus. Psychology and Education Departments These departments may have staff and/or post graduate students who are willing to assist the university community as:
Such departments may also offer specialised courses or units of study for people interested in working more effectively with people with LD. Student Administration Student Administration services interact with all students at important points in their university studies from admission to graduation. Therefore, staff in these areas need to be aware of what difficulties students with LD may have in dealing with administration systems and in complying with existing information systems, regulations and procedures. Technicians Technicians in university computer centres may be aware of a range of computer equipment and software which would be of assistance to students with LD. Technicians could be most helpful in providing expert support and training in the use of adaptive technology for members of staff and students. Postgraduate Students Post graduate students, especially those from within Psychology and Education departments could act as tutors, mentors or coaches for students with LD. Student Associations Some student associations or unions, if informed about the requirements, may be able to assist students with LD by supporting their requests for accommodations and support or employing study skills advisers. Students with Learning Disabilities Students with LD, as a group, can provide mutual support in study related matters and in activities designed to inform the university of their requirements. Community ResourcesThere are very few resources in the general community equipped specifically to provide support services, facilities and/or resources for people with LD. Those which may be of assistance are:Talking-Book Libraries Students with learning disabilities are eligible to use the services provided by societies and institutes for the blind in each State. Talking book libraries hold many titles required by students. They also provide reading to audio-tape/scanning to computer disk services for new material. Psychologists Many psychologists in private practice have the basic knowledge to assist with initial assessments. However, because the field is perceived to be so small in Australia, few have gained the specialised qualifications and extensive experience necessary to work effectively with people with LD. SPELD SPELD (Specific Learning Difficulties Association) operates in all states in Australia. SPELD supports research into learning disabilities and provides information and individual assessment services for children and adults with LD. HREOC HREOC (Human Rights & Equal Opportunity Commission) responds to complaints of discrimination and is able to provide advice and information about relevant federal and state legislation. HREOC has offices in each state and territory listed under Human Rights or Equal Opportunity. The national office is located in Sydney.
Address: GPO Box 5218, Sydney, NSW 2001
Telephone: (02) 229 7600
Facsimile: (02) 229 6711
Telephone Typewriter: (02) 221 6094
ReferencesAksamit, D., Morris, M., & Leuenberger, J., 1987, 'Preparation of student services professionals and faculty for serving learning- disabled college students', Journal of College Student Personnel, 28, 53-59.Andrews, R., 1991, Assistance for Students with Disabilities: Review of Existing Data, Paradise Point, Qld., Robert J Andrews and Associates. Andrews, R. & Smith, J., 1992, Additional Costs of Education and Training for People with Disabilities: Final Report, Canberra, Department of Employment, Education and Training. Brinkerhoff, L.C., Shaw, S.F., & McGuire, J.M., 1992, 'Promoting access, accommodation and independence for college students with learning disabilities', Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 7, 417-429. Australian National University Study Skills Centre, 1993a, Managing Oral Examinations for Students with Disabilities: A Guide for Staff and Students, Canberra, Australian National University. Australian National University Study Skills Centre, 1993b, Reasonable Accommodations: Strategies for Teaching University Students with Disabilities, Canberra, Australian National University. Foulk, J.B. (ed.), 1990, College Survival Manual for Learning Disabled Students, Pennsylvania, Office for Disabled Students, Edinboro University of Pennsylvania. Gajar, A.H., c.1986, Programming for College Students with Learning Disabilities, Columbus OH, Association on Handicapped Student Service Programs in Postsecondary Education. Gajar, A.H., 1992, Adults with learning disabilities: current and future research priorities, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 8, 507-519. Gearheart, B.R., & Gearheart, C.J., 1989, Learning disabilities : educational strategies, Columbus, OH, Merrill Publishing Company. Hammill, D.D., 1990, On defining learning disabilities : an emerging consensus, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 2, 74- 84. Hammill, D.D., Leigh, J.E., McNutt, G., & Larsen, S.C., 1981, A new definition of learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 4, 336-342. Hastings, E., 1993, Smoothing the Pathway: The Disability Discrimination Act and Higher Education, in Proceedings of the Pathways II Conference, Brisbane, Higher Education Disability Network. Heward, W.L. & Orlansky, M.D., 1988, Exceptional Children: An Introductory Survey of Special Education, Third Edition, London, Merrill Publishing Company. Houck, C. K., Asselin, S.B., Troutman, G.C., & Arrington, J.M., 1992, Students with learning disabilities in the university environment : a study of faculty and student perception. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 10, 678-684. Human Rights & Equal Opportunity Commission, 1993 ACT Against Disability Discrimination: The Federal Disability Discrimination Act, Sydney, Human Rights Australia. Macquarie University, The University of New South Wales, The University of Sydney & The University of Technology, Sydney, 1992, Reasonable Accommodations: Strategies for Teaching University Students with Disabilities, Sydney. Mangrum, C.T., & Strichart, S.S., 1988a, College and the learning disabled student, Second Edition, London, Harcourt Brace Javanovich. Mangrum, C.T., & Strichart, S.S., 1988b, College opportunities, in K. A. Kavale, S.R. Forness & M. Bender, Handbook of Learning Disabilities, Volume 111, Programs and Practices, Boston, A College-Hill Publication, 165-197. McConnell, G.M., 1991, Report on Consultation with Disability Resource Personnel at Six Canadian Universities, unpublished, Melbourne. McConnell, G.M., 1992, Learning Disabilities and Post Secondary Education: Report on Responses to a Survey, unpublished, Melbourne. Noble, A., 1993, Students with Learning Disabilities, Pathways: post secondary education disability network newsletter, University of South Australia, Equal Opportunity Unit, No. 4, May 1993, 14-15 Norlander, K.A., Shaw, S.F., & McGuire, J.M., 1990, Competencies of postsecondary education personnel serving students with learning disabilities, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 426- 432. Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1976, Report of the House of Representatives Select Committee on Specific Learning Difficulties, Canberra, Australian Government Printing Service. Patton, J.R., & Polloway, E.A., 1992, Learning disabilities, the challenges of adulthood, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 7, 410-415. Smith, C.R., 1991, Learning disabilities : the interaction of learner, task and setting, London, Allyn & Bacon. Sykes, S.C., 1982, Learning disabilities : some theoretical and practical considerations, Australian Journal of Remedial Education, 14, 1 & 2, 121-123. United States Department of Education, 1990, Instructional Strategies for Adults with Learning Disabilities, Washington, Clearinghouse on Adult Education and Literacy. United States Office of Education, 1977, Definition and criteria for defining students as learning disabled, Federal Register, 42 : 250, p. 65083, Washington, DC : US Government Printing Office. Vogel, S., 1993, College Students with Learning Disabilities: A Handbook, Fourth Edition, Northern Illinois University. Vogel, S.A., & Adelman, P B., 1990, Intervention effectiveness at the post-secondary level for the learning disabled student, in T.E. Scruggs & B.Y.L. Wong (Eds), Intervention research in learning disabilities, London., Springer-Verlag, 329-344. Vogel, S.A., & Adelman, P.B., 1992, The success of college students with learning disabilities: factors related to educational attainment, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 7, 430- 441. AppendixSelf-Help Strategies for StudentsFirst year students may find the following strategies useful:
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