Alternative assessment for students with disabilities
Preface
Acknowledgements
Alternative Formats
Introduction
Aim of Booklet
Disability Discrimination Legislation and Reasonable
Adjustment
What is Alternative Assessment?
Some Implications of Developing Alternative
Assessment Provisions
The Purpose of Alternative Assessment
Some Considerations in Selecting Strategies
for the Individual Student
Possible Guidelines for Specific Alternative Assessment
Strategies
The Use of Specific Personnel
Interpreter
Reader
Scribe
Personal Assistant
Oral Examinations
Use of Personal Computers in Examinations
Time-related Changes (eg additional time, rest breaks)
Types of Disability and Related Alternative Assessment
Strategies
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (or Myalgic Encephalomyelitis)
Chronic Pain
Hearing Loss (Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing)
Learning Disability
Medical Condition
Overuse Injury
Physical Disability
Psychiatric Condition
Speech Impairment
Vision Impairment (Blind and Low Vision)
References
Further Resources (Annotated list)
Appendices
A Possible Guidelines when Using an Interpreter
B Possible Guidelines when Using a Reader
C Possible Guidelines when Using a Scribe
D Possible Guidelines when using a Personal Assistant
For Further Information Contact
Preface
This booklet is an equity initiative of Griffith University's Academic
Administration
Written by: Martina Jordan and Nancy Rodgers
Project Coordinators:
Merindi Derrick - Equal Academic Opportunity Coordinator
Nancy Rodgers - Disabilities Coordinator
Research Assistant: Martina Jordan
Permission is given for this booklet to be reproduced by other Australian
tertiary institutions.
Acknowledgements
Griffith University extends its thanks to:
- all the Australian Universities who participated in the Alternative
Assessment Survey and contributed information;
- The Australian National University
- Deakin University,
- University of Canberra and University of Wollongong for permission
to adapt information from their policies for inclusion in the booklet;
- Ms Joanna Peters and Associate Professor Des Power for thoughtful
and thorough editorial comment.
The Australian National University and the University of Canberra would
like to express their gratitude to the Academic Administration of Griffith
University, Queensland, for permission to reproduce this booklet. Particular
thanks go to the authors, Merrindi Derrick and Nancy Rodgers.
The cover has been changed in keeping with a series of resource guides
produced by the ACT universities.
Funding for this project has been from a joint grant for Disabilities
to The Australian National University and the University of Canberra from
the Department of Employment Education and Training through the Higher
Education and Equity Program.
Alternative formats
This booklet is available on audiotape or on computer disk.
For further information please contact:
The Disabilities Office
Griffith University QLD 4111
Telephone (07) 875 7280
Facsimile (07) 875 5360
Introduction
Aim of Booklet
For people with disabilities to enter and successfully complete university
study, and to have choices about the type of course they undertake, a
number of provisions must be available. One such provision is an adequate
and clearly articulated alternative assessment policy that will be amenable
to the individual requirements of students.
The aim of this booklet is to provide university staff with basic information
about alternative assessments for students with disabilities. The booklet
is particularly for university staff who are new to the process of determining
appropriate alternative assessment strategies for a student with a disability.
The information contained in this booklet is based on replies to a survey
on alternative assessment which was forwarded to all Australian universities,
and a literature search spanning the past ten years.
Disability Discrimination Legislation and
Reasonable Adjustment
The Commonwealth Disability Discrimination Act came into effect in March
1993 and includes a requirement for academic environments to be free from
discrimination on the grounds of disability. This Act is complaints-based
and makes it unlawful to discriminate against a person on the grounds
of disability.
Because the Act includes provision for academic environments to be free
from discrimination on the grounds of disability, an essential consideration
for universities now is a major principle associated with equity issues
- the principle of 'reasonable adjustment'.
This principle is enshrined in the Act and it asserts that wherever possible,
necessary and 'reasonable' to do so, the usual policy or practice will
be varied to meet the needs of a person with a disability. The purpose
of varying the usual policy or practice is to meet the needs of the person
with a disability rather than requiring them to accept practices developed
with other circumstances in mind.
The principle of reasonable adjustment is therefore central to policy
making and practices relating to alternative assessment strategies.
What is Alternative Assessment?
For the purpose of this booklet, alternative assessment refers to any
alteration to the standard form of assessment (examinations and/or assignments)
or conditions relating to the assessment which are put in place to accommodate
a student's disability.
Some Implications of Developing Alternative
Assessment Provisions
The consideration of what are equitable and responsive alternative assessment
provisions encourages enquiry into general aspects of assessment.
For example, the nature and purpose of time limits in academic examinations
is an area currently under investigation. Arguments have been put forward
suggesting that one function of time limits is to facilitate administrative
ease in organising schedules and in arranging venues and supervisory staff.
Another suggestion is that speed of response should not be a primary objective
of tertiary assessments, the main aim should be to ensure the critical
objectives of the course are met.
Such arguments challenge traditional practices for rigid time limits
and indicate that there is a case for flexibility within general and specific
assessment conditions without jeopardising academic standards.
The Purpose of Alternative Assessment
The purpose of alternative assessment strategies is to minimise the impact
of the student's disability upon assessment performance. It is designed
to place such students on a more equal footing with non- disabled students,
not to give them any additional advantage.
Students who require and undertake assessments with effective alternative
assessment strategies do perform better than without such strategies.
Such improvement in performance outcome is a reflection of the student's
actual academic abilities, whereas a poorer performance outcome under
conditions of inadequate provision, is usually a reflection of the student's
disability.
Remember … the same academic requirements and standards should
be applied to all students whether or not they have a disability. The
objective in providing alternative assessment is simply to accommodate
the student's functional differences which exist because of the disability.
Some considerations in selecting strategies
for the individual student
When selecting an alternative assessment strategy for an individual student,
a number of factors must be considered if the strategy is to be effective.
1. The nature and onset of disability
Different types of disabilities will call for different alternative assessment
strategies. Even within the same type of disability there are variations
between the specific strategies that individual students require. A paper
published by Skill: National Bureau for Students with Disabilities in
Britain (1987:3) stresses that
in many cases it is not possible to draw up a set of specific procedures
which will apply to all candidates with a similar disability. The effects
of disability, whether permanent or temporary, are unique to the individual
concerned and appropriate arrangements can, therefore, be made only on
an individual basis.
Also, the individual student's adaptation to disability and skill at
using alternative strategies will vary according to whether the impairment
is long-standing, recently acquired, fluctuating, intermittent or temporary.
For example, a student who has had a disability since birth will very
likely be more adept at identifying and using alternative strategies than
students who have recently acquired a disability or students who are continually
adjusting to intermittent conditions (eg, some forms of arthritis).
Information regarding these aspects of the student's disability may be
included in the professional statement/certificate that most universities
request for verification of the student's disability.
2. The type of assessment to be undertaken
The alternative assessment strategies a student will require may vary
from one type of assessment to another. For example, a student with cerebral
palsy who manages well in a multiple choice examination with additional
time, might require significantly more additional time for an essay type
examination because of the amount of writing demanded by the task.
3. The nature of the course/subject
Students with similar types of disabilities who are studying quite different
courses may have very different requirements. For example, a student with
a learning disability who is undertaking a practically oriented course
with task-driven assessment, will have different alternative assessment
needs to a student with a learning disability who is undertaking a course
requiring high levels of reading and writing.
4. The student's usual work methods
Specific equipment or personnel assistance generally used by the student
to facilitate study and for minimising the disadvantages resulting from
the specific disability may also need to be available to the student during
assessment.
Examples of specific equipment include personal computers, voice synthesisers,
spellcheck software, closed-circuit televisions, specialised writing implements,
calculators. Examples of specific personnel include Interpreters, Readers,
Scribes and Personal Assistants.
Also, students with similar types of disabilities may have different
work methods. For example, one student with a vision impairment may work
best with brailed materials, while another student with a similar level
of vision impairment may work best with audiotaped materials.
5. The specific type of alternative assessment
Consideration must be given to what other circumstances need to occur
for the individual student if the benefit of specific alternative assessment
is to be achieved. Some alternative assessment strategies cannot be used
in isolation from other provisions. For example, a student permitted to
use adaptive technology during an examination will not perform at capacity
if not permitted extra time in which to carry out the additional tasks
required to operate the adaptive technology.
6. Information from consultation with the student involved
Information relating to the nature and onset of disability and the student's
usual work methods can only be ascertained from the student. In any case,
to ensure that the alternative assessment strategy selected is effective,
it is imperative that the student's individual needs are accommodated.
This can only be achieved by actively involving the student in the alternative
assessment decision-making process. On some occasions, it may be helpful
to also seek the advice of the university's Disability Officer.
Possible guidelines for specific strategies
The purpose of this section is to outline some specific alternative assessment
strategies and to provide examples for their use. In addition, this section
provides 'possible guidelines' for the use of these strategies. The possible
guidelines for the use of specific personnel have many points in common.
As such, each set of guidelines is produced in full as an appendix.
The Use of Specific Personnel
Interpreter
Students who are deaf and who use sign language will require an Interpreter
at the start of an examination if any instructions are delivered orally.
Also the Interpreter may be necessary to allow the student to clarify
information on the examination paper.
Students who are deaf may require an Interpreter if the assessment involves
the student giving an oral presentation.
An Interpreter may use signed English or Australian Sign Language to
communicate with a student who is deaf.
See Appendix A for possible guidelines when using
an Interpreter.
Reader
Students who are unable to read print because of a disability may require
a Reader (eg, a student who is blind or a student with involuntary head
movements).
Students who access auditory information better than visual information
may require a Reader. (eg, some students with learning disability and
some students with head injury).
See Appendix B for possible guidelines when using
a Reader.
Scribe (also called a writer or amanuensis)
Students whose ability to write or type is impaired may require a Scribe.
The impairment may result in:
- a total inability to write or type (eg, some students with quadriplegia
or cerebral palsy);
- a reduced speed and/or loss of endurance for writing (eg, some students
with muscular dystrophy or an injury to the dominant hand or arm);
- pain upon writing (eg, in the case of overuse injury or some forms
of arthritis).
Students who have a disability which restricts their ability to maintain
the posture needed for writing or typing may also require a Scribe (eg,
in the case of severe back pain).
Students who present information better in an oral form than in a written
form may require a Scribe (eg, some students with learning disability).
See Appendix C for possible guidelines when using
a Scribe.
Personal Assistant
A student who requires assistance in personal and/or practical ways during
the course of an examination may require a Personal Assistant.
The Personal Assistant may be required to provide assistance with manual
tasks at the student's instruction; for example, turning pages, inserting
a disk into a computer, removing the student's cardigan.
A Personal Assistant may also be required to assist with personal care
tasks during rest breaks (eg, eating, toileting).
See Appendix D for possible guidelines when using
a Personal Assistant.
Oral Examinations
These examinations may involve the oral presentation of examination questions
and/or the student delivering examination answers orally, when the standard
mode is in writing.
Oral Questions
Students who access auditory information better than visual information
may require examination questions to be presented orally (eg, students
with learning disability or head injury).
Oral Answers
Students whose ability to write and type have been impaired may need
to provide their examination answers orally.
Students who present information better orally than in writing, may also
need provision to supply examination answers orally (eg, some students
with learning disability or head injury).
Possible Guidelines When Using Oral Examinations:
The guidelines below apply to the oral interview; that is, when both
the examination questions and the answers are presented orally.
- Two academic staff should conduct the oral examination; one to administer
the assessment and another to assess the student's performance. The
student may elect for those staff members not to be their direct lecturer/tutor
in order to minimise examination anxiety.
- The oral assessment session should be recorded on audiotape for later
reference to ensure comparability of grading. The audio tape should
then be handed over to the student, or erased, once marking has been
finalised (where this is an equivalent practice to the treatment of
written examination papers).
- In the marking criteria the examiners should be clear about the weighting
given to the content of responses as opposed to the presentation of
responses.
- The terms and procedures of the oral examination should be made explicit
to the examiners and to the student prior to the examination (eg, at
time of approval of this strategy) to enable all parties to prepare
adequately for the task.
- The examiners and the student need to have a clear understanding,
prior to the examination, about whether the oral examination will involve
queries from the examiner(s) that invite elaboration/editing of material
presented by the student.
- The student should be allotted time for:
- reading or listening to questions and deciding on questions to
be attempted;
- preparing the answer to each question to be attempted;
- presenting each answer orally.
- After the final question has been answered, the student should be
allotted time in which to revise or add to any previous answers. The
student should be allowed additional time due to any additional demands
(ie skills/tasks) for the student in requiring/using this strategy.
(Adapted from Managing Oral Examinations, The Australian National
University)
Use of Personal Computers in Examinations
Specific equipment generally used by the student to facilitate study may
need to be available to the student during assessment. Such equipment
will often include personal computers and word processors. It may also
include voice synthesisers and software such as spelling checkers, grammar
checkers, dictionaries, thesauruses and software to enlarge print on the
computer screen.
The use of personal computers in examinations may be for the purpose
of providing examination questions in an appropriate format for the student.
In addition, or alternatively, the personal computer may be used by the
student to formulate and produce examination answers.
Examination Questions via the Personal Computer
A student who is blind may access the examination questions by using
a voice synthesiser. In such instances, the examination questions would
need to be relayed to the student's computer by electronic mail or on
computer disk.
A student who has low vision may access the examination questions by
converting them to large print at the screen. Again, the examination questions
would need to be provided by electronic mail or computer disk.
Examination Answers via the Personal Computer
Students who are blind may require a personal computer to type examination
answers. The use of a voice synthesiser enables the students to check
the content of their answers. Students with low vision may require a personal
computer to formulate and check their answers in large print on the screen.
In both these cases, examination answers can be provided to the examiner
as a printed hard copy, by computer disk or electronic mail.
Students with a learning disability who have particular difficulty with
spelling and grammar may need to formulate answers on a personal computer
and word processor so as to use a spelling checker and/or grammar checker.
Students who are unable to hold and accurately push a pen may be able
to push the keys of a personal computer to formulate their examination
answers. (eg, some students with cerebral palsy). If incoordination of
arm/hand movements results in inaccurate key strikes, a word processor
allows efficient self-correction of errors.
Some students with back pain experience difficulty leaning forward to
write. A more upright position can often be maintained when using a personal
computer. Such students may therefore require a personal computer to formulate
their examination answers.
In considering the implications for the use of the student's time when
permitted to use a personal computer during an examination, it is important
to recognise that the student may not necessarily be able to type faster
than the writing speed of his/her peers, and that the cognitive tasks
of undertaking assessment involve not just the writing of answers but
also perusal, comprehension, formulation of answers, and review - all
of which require reasonable time for any student. In short, it is unlikely
that the use of a keyboard will give the student a time advantage.
Possible Guidelines for the Use of Personal Computers in Examinations:
The following possible guidelines apply to a student using a personal
computer to produce examination answers.
- A blank floppy disk should be supplied, which will be initialised
and labelled with the student's name, identification number and time
of the examination.
- The computer disk should be used by the student for the purposes of
the examination only.
- If using their own computer, the student should sign a statutory declaration
indicating that he/she will not access data or software on the hard
drive, unless otherwise agreed.
- The examination will be conducted and supervised under the conditions
specified in the "instructions to supervisors". The student
should be given copies of these instructions prior to the examination.
- Where a student is answering an examination paper over two or more
sessions, the supervisor shall hold the disk for each subsequent session.
- The supervisor should have sufficient computer knowledge to ensure
that the student uses only those facilities that are specified in the
supervisor's instructions.
- Where specified in the supervisor's instructions, the student should
be allowed additional time due to the extra demands (ie, skills/tasks)
for the student in using this strategy.
- Extra time should be allowed for printing of the examination answers
and checking the quality of the printout. Both these tasks should be
carried out under supervision.
- The disk should be returned with the printed examination script to
the Faculty or other relevant assessment authority.
- The location and time of the examination should be approved by the
Faculty Examination Section, or other relevant assessment authority.
(Adapted from Deakin University policy, and University of Canberra
policy)
Time Related Changes (eg. additional time, rest breaks)
Additional Time
The most contentious and variable alternative assessment strategy is the
provision of additional time. Responses to the survey indicate that there
is neither uniformity of decisions nor clarity about what are appropriate
allowances for additional time within Australian universities.
The literature search also indicated that this particular strategy is
perhaps the most difficult in which to set clear guidelines. Hartman and
Redden (1985:4) argue that 'there are no rigid rules for determining how
much additional time should be given; rather, extended time should flexibly
permit reasonable progress without dawdling'.
Research into the effects on test performance of allowing examinees extra
time indicates that little or no unfair advantage is gained over those
who complete the examination in the standard time. Bridges (1982) examined
the relationship between achievement test performance and the time required
for completion. Using tertiary students, Bridges concluded that the amount
of time taken to complete an examination did not seem to be related to
test performance. Also, Lin (1986) found that a test's construct and predictive
validities were unlikely to be jeopardised by time variations.
With reference to learning disability the debate is focused on whether
such students gain an unfair advantage when allowed additional time. Recent
research, suggests that the additional time students with learning disability
require for comprehension and expression affords them no advantage in
being able to complete more of the examination.
Runyan (1991) found that reading comprehension scores of students with
learning disability and scores of students without disability differed
significantly under timed conditions, but that scores were not significantly
different when both groups were allowed extra time.
There are three main reasons why a student with a disability might require
additional time to complete an examination. The first is the nature of
the disability. For example, students who have physical, sensory (eg,
vision or hearing impairment) or learning disability may require additional
time to formulate, write and/or check their examination answers. Similarly,
students who experience impaired concentration because of chronic pain
or conditions resulting in early onset of fatigue, may also require additional
time to formulate, write and check examination answers.
Many forms of alternative assessment place additional demands on the student.
For example, students using large print read more slowly because fewer
words can be scanned by the eye at any one time and less content is contained
on each page. If such alternative assessment strategies are to be used
effectively, additional time for the examination is required by the student.
The stress of assessment and examination conditions may exacerbate certain
disabilities (eg, some students with a psychiatric condition). Students
disadvantaged in this way may require additional time in examinations
to relieve time pressure.
Possible Guidelines for the Provision of Additional Time
Until more research clarifies the nature and purpose of time limits for
examinations, universities and students require guidelines for determining
how much additional time is reasonable.
These guidelines are outlined below.
Examples of additional time allowances collected through the survey include
Physical Disability/Repetitive Strain Injury:
5 to 10 minutes per hour to accommodate slower writing speed
Learning Disability:
20 minutes per hour for perusal/formulating/writing/checking answers
Chronic Pain:
15 minutes per hour for standing and/or moving around
Vision Impairment:
Double time for students who are blind; and time-and-a-half for students
who have low vision
Hearing Loss:
20 minutes per hour for perusal/formulating/writing/checking answers
In considering the application of these examples, it is important to
bear in mind that these are broad examples which focus only on the nature
of the disability. Other factors, such as those listed below, also need
to be considered.
Consideration of the factors for selecting strategies for the individual
student may assist staff in determining the amount of additional time
which will meet the needs of individual students. In brief, these factors
are:
- the nature and onset of disability;
- the type of assessment to be undertaken;
- the subject of the assessment;
- the student's usual work methods;
- the specific type of alternative provision; and information resulting
from consultation with the student involved.
Where additional time is granted for examinations, it may be necessary
to stipulate how the extra time is to be used. For example,
- x number of additional minutes for perusal,
- x number of minutes per hour for writing and checking answers.
Rest Breaks
Rest breaks are provided so that the examination session does not become
an endurance test for the student, particularly if additional time has
been allowed.
A student who has a disability that causes pain (eg, back condition)
may require rest breaks to relieve pain by standing and walking around.
A student who becomes extremely stressed during examinations because
of a psychiatric or psychological condition may require rest breaks to
reduce anxiety levels. The rest break may be used to move around the room
or to take short walks outside (under supervision).
Some students may require rest breaks in order to attend to personal
needs; for example, a student with diabetes may need to eat. Other conditions
may necessitate medication or toileting during the examination period.
Possible Guidelines for the Provision of Rest Breaks
Where rest breaks are allowed, it is useful for the supervisor and the
student to have a clear understanding of the terms under which this strategy
will be used, namely:
- the length and frequency of rest breaks;
In some cases, the rest breaks are not predetermined and are taken when
required by the student (eg, for toileting). In these instances the
rest break may be timed by the supervisor and added onto the specified
time for the examination.
NOTE: Students who are provided with additional time but are not placed
in a separate venue are likely to be disturbed by the earlier mass exodus
of the larger student group. Accordingly, it may be appropriate to provide
a separate examination venue or to allocate a rest break (eg, ten minutes)
while the larger student group leaves the examination room.
- the role of the supervisor in monitoring and encouraging the use of
rest breaks; and
- the activities permitted during rest breaks (eg, walking, eating,
toileting).
Flexible Time Arrangements
Some students with disabilities may require flexibility in the scheduling
of their examinations. This may involve any of the following:
Changes to scheduled examination times within a given day.
For example, students with conditions which result in early fatigue and
impaired concentration may require morning examinations in preference
to afternoon or evening examinations.
Changes to scheduled examination dates and times within the examination
period.
For example, a student with a physical disability who requires double
time to complete an examination (because of the use of special equipment)
and who experiences fatigue, may find it difficult to manage a number
of examinations in quick succession.
Examinations may need to be scheduled so that where possible, rest periods
are provided between examinations.
Examinations split into more than one session.
When additional time is provided for an examination which is already lengthy
(eg, three hours) the result may be too fatiguing, physically and mentally,
for some students with disabilities. Splitting such examinations into
more than one session, either on the same day or on successive days, may
be a more suitable arrangement.
Possible Guidelines for Split Sessions Over Successive Days
- The student will sign the mandatory statutory declaration normally
required where examinations are held at a different time to the scheduled
time.
- The student will nominate which part of the examination paper will
be answered in that session and the remainder of the paper will remain
unseen by the student and retained by the supervisor.
- Where practicable, the student should commence the examination on
the preceding day(s) to when the scheduled examination takes place,
and conclude on the scheduled examination day.
(Adapted from Deakin University policy.)
Types of disability and related alternative assessment
strategies
This section outlines the broad types of disability and the associated
functional difficulties for which an alternative assessment strategy may
be required. Below each functional difficulty is a list of appropriate
alternative assessment strategies from which the most suitable strategy
can be selected. The list of strategies is in italics and is not in any
particular order.
It is important to remember that students may have a number of functional
difficulties associated with their disability and may also have more than
one type of disability. As such some students require a mix of alternative
assessment strategies.
Alternative assessment strategies should be selected with flexibility
as well as fairness. The strategies listed in this section are not exhaustive.
Creative imagination in the selection and application of alternative strategies
can also be very useful.
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
This is a relatively new condition which causes tiredness, headache and
pain, muscular fatigue, general weakness, impaired concentration and lowered
morale. The condition may gradually improve but often relapses occur.
Functional difficulty: impaired concentration due to
fatigue
Answering alternatives
- additional time
- rest breaks*
- split sessions, on same or successive days, to prevent student working
for extended periods*
Functional difficulty: lower endurance for writing and/or
reduced writing speed
Answering alternatives
- Scribe*
- oral to examiner
- oral to audiotape or dictaphone
- rest breaks*
- additional time
- personal computer (if using a keyboard is preferable to writing)*
Other considerations
Physical environment
- appropriate furniture - desk/chair heights and slopes
- adequate space for equipment and specific personnel
- access to power points for equipment
Flexible time arrangements to prevent overloading the student
Separate examination venue if using rest breaks to stand, stretch and
move around due to noise created when using equipment or specific personnel
* Strategy may also require additional time
Chronic pain
There are numerous causes of chronic pain and students with this disability
may be unable to persist very long with a task without rest breaks or
changing posture. Students may experience fatigue, stress-related anxiety,
impaired concentration and side-effects from pain-relieving medication.
Functional difficulty: inability to maintain writing
posture during the period of the examination (eg, due to back pain)
Answering alternatives
- Scribe *
- oral to examiner
- oral to audiotape or dictaphone
- rest breaks allowing student to stand, stretch and move around *
- personal computer (if posture is preferable to a handwriting posture)
Functional difficulty: Impaired concentration because
of pain
Answering alternatives
- rest breaks *
- split sessions, on the same or successive days, to prevent the student
working for extended periods
- additional time
Other considerations
Physical environment
- appropriate furniture - desk/chair heights and slopes; footstools
- adequate space for equipment and specific personnel
- access to power points for equipment
Flexible time arrangements to prevent overloading the student
Separate examination venue if using rest breaks during which the student
moves around
* Strategy may also require additional time
Hearing loss (deaf or hard-of-hearing)
Students who have a hearing loss have widely differing degrees of hearing
ranging from partial hearing to total loss of hearing. Hearing loss can
affect the development of language skills such as oral speech, reading
and writing.
Depending on the extent of hearing loss, communication is through hearing
aids, lip reading, 'cued speech' (which aids lip reading) sign language,
or signed English.
For some persons whose deafness occurred prior to early language development,
sign language may be their first language. Because sign language is quite
distinct in its construction, English is therefore the second language
and requires the student to translate from one to the other.
Functional difficulty: inability to access information
delivered orally (eg, examination instructions or when clarifying examination
questions)
Instruction alternatives
- Interpreter * (if student uses sign language)
- facing student and speaking clearly (if student lip reads)
- producing all instructions in writing *
- FM hearing system or induction loop
Functional difficulty: English difficulties because
it is a second language or because of restricted auditory input of English
(where deafness occurred prior to early language development)
Answering alternatives
- additional time
- dictionary, thesaurus*
- personal computer with spelling and grammar checkers, dictionaries
and thesauruses *
Other considerations
Physical environment
- access to power points for equipment
- adequate space for equipment or specific personnel
* Strategy may also require additional time
Learning disability
This term refers to a range of difficulties with receiving, processing,
expressing or retrieving information, any of which affects the person's
ability to function effectively in one or more areas (such as spelling,
grammar, following directions, spatial relations, numbers).
Functional difficulty: accessing information which is
in a written/print form
Questioning alternatives
Reader *
oral by examiner
audiotaped questions*
personal computer with voice synthesiser*
additional time
Functional difficulty: expressing own knowledge in a
written form; particular difficulty with spelling and/or grammar
Answering alternatives
- additional time
- Scribe*
- oral answers to the examiner
- oral answers to audiotape or dictaphone
- personal computer with spelling and grammar checkers, dictionaries,
thesauruses *
- special equipment (ie, Spell Master)*
- multiple choice and short answer questions in preference to long answer
questions
Functional difficulty: numbers and numerical concepts
Answering alternatives
Other considerations
Physical environment
- access to power points for equipment
- adequate space for equipment and specific personnel
Separate examination venue if student is easily distracted by the movement
and noise of others
due to noise when using equipment or specific personnel
* Strategy may also require additional time
Medical condition
There are obviously numerous conditions in this category (eg, respiratory
or cardiac conditions, diabetes, cancer). Such conditions may therefore
vary enormously, be temporary or long- standing, and may be well-controlled
or fluctuating.
Students with debilitating medical conditions may be unable to persist
very long with a task without rest breaks, or may experience fatigue,
discomfort, pain, or impaired concentration.
Prescribed medications may cause fatigue and/or difficulty with concentration
or memory.
Functional difficulty: low endurance for writing or
maintaining a writing posture
Answering alternatives
- Scribe *
- oral to examiner
- oral to audiotape or dictaphone
- personal computer * (if greater endurance using a keyboard or if posture
is preferable to a writing posture)
- rest breaks *
Functional difficulty: reduced writing speed.
Answering alternatives
additional time
Functional difficulty: reduced ability to maintain concentration.
Answering alternatives
- rest breaks *
- split sessions, on same day or successive days *
- separate examination venue - if distracted by other students' movements
or noise
Other considerations
Specific permission may be required to eat/drink, take medication, go
to toilet, move around or lie down during rest breaks
Specific personnel (ie, Personal Assistant) to assist in personal/practical
ways if condition is severe
Physical environment
- appropriate furniture - desk/chair heights and slopes, footstools
- adequate space for equipment and specific personnel
- access to power points for equipment
Separate examination venue if using rest breaks to stand, move around,
eat, drink in home or hospital if bedside arrangements are required
Alternative assessable task
take home examinations if longer and self-determined rest breaks are needed
Flexible time arrangements to prevent overloading the student
* Strategy may also require additional time
Overuse injury
This area of disability refers to a range of injuries caused by overuse
(particularly in fast, repetitive activities) resulting in pain and/or
stiffness in the hands, wrists, forearms and/or neck. Difficulties therefore
arise in relation to manual tasks such as writing or keyboard use.
Functional difficulty: pain when writing or reduced endurance
for writing and/or reduced writing speed
Answering alternatives
- Scribe *
- oral to examiner
- oral to audiotape or dictaphone
- personal computer* (if the use of a keyboard causes less discomfort)
- additional time
- rest breaks
Other considerations
Physical environment
- appropriate furniture - desk/chair heights and slopes
- access to power points for equipment
- adequate space for equipment and specific personnel
Flexible time arrangements to prevent overloading the student
Separate examination venue if rest breaks are provided allowing the student
to stand, stretch and move around
* Strategy may also require additional time
Physical disability
This may involve impaired function in the hands, arms, legs, trunk or
neck. The impairment may involve the inability to move the body part (eg,
quadriplegia) or inability to coordinate movement (eg, cerebral palsy).
Missing limb/s through amputation is also included.
Functional difficulty: inability to write using a pen
Answering alternatives
Scribe *
oral to examiner
oral to audiotape or dictaphone
use of a personal computer and word processor* (if key accuracy is affected
due to unco-ordination then use of appropriate software or hardware eg,
spelling checkers)
Functional difficulty: reduced writing speed when using
a pen
Answering alternatives
additional time
rest breaks *, if fatigue occurs
use of a personal computer, if keyboard skills are faster
Functional difficulty: involuntary head movements interfering with ability
to read standard sized print
Questioning alternatives
large print*
Reader*
audiotaped questions*
use of a personal computer with a voice synthesiser *
personal computer with large print at the screen*
closed-circuit television to magnify print *
Answering alternatives
personal computer with large print *
personal computer with voice synthesiser *
Scribe *
oral to examiner
oral to audiotape or dictaphone
Functional difficulty: unable to manipulate immediate environment (eg,
turn pages, insert computer disks)
Questioning and Answering alternatives
Personal Assistant *
Other considerations
Physical Environment
appropriate furniture - desk/chair heights and slopes
access to power points for equipment
adequate space for equipment and specific personnel
Separate examination venue
due to noise when using equipment or specific personnel
Flexible time arrangements
to prevent overloading the student
* Strategy may also require additional time
Psychiatric condtion
Students with these conditions may have any of a range of difficulties
such as anxiety, depression, poor motivation, or recovery from substance
abuse - any of which may affect concentration, attention, interest level
and/or the ability to meet deadlines. These difficulties may be transitory
(eg, induced by recent personal trauma) or of longer standing.
These types of disabilities may affect the student's performance under
stressful conditions such as academic assessment. If students are taking
prescription medication they may be affected by drowsiness, thirst, visual
and/or manual difficulties.
Functional difficulty: extreme examination-related stress
Answering alternatives
additional time
rest breaks * with provision to walk around, possibly outside the examination
venue
flexible time arrangements *
separate examination venue
take-home examinations*
alternative assessable task (eg, assignment)
Functional difficulty: reduced ability to maintain concentration
Answering alternatives
rest breaks *
flexible time arrangements including split sessions on same or successive
days*
separate examination venue - if distracted by other students' movements
or noise
Other considerations
Separate examination venue
if using rest breaks which permit standing and moving around
* Strategy may also require additional time
Speech impairment
This may include speech that is hard to understand, stuttering, diminished
voice strength/projection or inability to communicate orally.
For Oral Assessments/Examinations
Functional difficulty: inability to communicate orally
Answering alternatives
Interpreter * (if student can use sign language)
personal computer with voice synthesiser *
Reader (of student's work)
Functional difficulty: reduced speech speed or stuttering or speech which
is hard to understand
Answering alternatives
additional time
Other considerations
Assign an alternative assessable task which involves written answers
* Strategy may also require additional time
Vision impairment (blind and low vision)
This involves a loss of vision ranging from low vision to no functional
vision at all (ie, blind).
Functional difficulty: inability to read examination questions in standard
print
Questioning alternatives
braille examination papers (with tactile diagrams, maps) *
personal computer with voice synthesiser *
Reader *
oral examination with examiner
audiotaped questions *
large print*
personal computer with large print*
Functional difficulty: inability to see own handwriting when answering
questions
Answering alternatives
personal computer with voice synthesiser *
personal computer with large print *
closed-circuit television (which enlarges print) *
special writing implements; eg, artline pens *
heavy lined paper
oral to examiner
oral to audiotape or dictaphone
scribe *
Other considerations
Physical environment
lighting and the elimination of glare can be very important to students
with low vision
access to power points for equipment
adequate space for equipment and specific personnel
Separate examination venue
due to noise when using equipment or specific personnel
NOTE: students who are blind may need orientation to unfamiliar venues
* Strategy may also require additional time
References
Australian National University (1992), Managing Oral Examinations for
Students with Disabilities: a Guide for Staff and Students. Canberra:
Author.
Bridges, K.R. (1982), Order of Finish, Time to Completion, and Performance
on Course-Based Objective Examinations: a Systematic Analysis of Their
Relationship on Both Individual Exam Scores and Total Score Across Three
Exams, paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Eastern Psychological
Association, Baltimore.
Hartman, R.C. and Redden, M.R. (1985), Measuring Student Progress in
the Classroom: a Guide to Testing and Evaluating Progress of Students
With Disabilities, 1985-86 Edition, American Council on Education Washington,
DC.
Lin, M. (1986), The Impact of Time Limits on Test Behaviours. Paper presented
at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association,
San Francisco.
Runyan, M.K. (1991), 'The effect of extra time on reading comprehension
scores for university students with and without learning disabilities',
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24 (2), 104-108.
Skill: National Bureau for Students with Disabilities (1987), Examination
Arrangements for Students with Disabilities, London: Author.
Further resources
Australian National University (1992), Managing Oral Examinations for
Students with Disabilities: a Guide for Staff and Students, Canberra:
Author.
This booklet is based on the experience of study skills advisers who have
worked with students with disabilities. The booklet is in two sections,
the first half is a resource for staff who administer and mark oral exams
- includes advice on taped exams, the oral interview and combinations
and variations of written/oral/practical exams. The second half of the
booklet consists of suggestions for students who are preparing for oral
exams - university staff are advised to read this section to gain a student
perspective on the oral exam.
Flinders University (1992), Specific Learning Disabilities at University
(Leaflet), Adelaide: Author.
This leaflet provides succinct but comprehensive information on specific
learning disabilities - the nature of this disability type, some of the
difficulties most commonly encountered, factors which exacerbate those
difficulties and the implications of this disability for alternative assessment
and teaching strategies. The leaflet also outlines the policy of Flinders
University on students with this disability.
Hartman, R.C. and Redden, M.R. (1985), Measuring Student Progress in
the Classroom: a Guide to Testing and Evaluating Progress of Students
With Disabilities, 1985-86 Edition. Washington, DC: American Council on
Education.
This article is a useful resource for awareness raising and includes
information on various disabilities and identifies a range of alternative
assessment strategies that have been used in educational settings. Some
considerations when selecting strategies are provided.
Skill: National Bureau for Students with Disabilities (1987), Examination
Arrangements for Students with Disabilities, London: Author.
This publication is similar to the Hartman and Redden article, but discusses
the issues more fully. It is useful for gaining an English perspective.
University of Newcastle (1992), Reasonable Accommodations: a Faculty
Guide for Teaching Students with Disabilities. Newcastle: Author.
This 17 page guide focuses more on alternative teaching strategies, than
assessment strategies. It is useful as a practical resource for university
staff and also as an awareness raising tool. It looks at myths relating
to disability, language and attitudes and discusses a range of specific
disability types in the context of implications for equal academic opportunity.
APPENDIX A - Possible Guidelines When Using an Interpreter
The Interpreter should be approved by the University prior to the examination
(Interpreters should be qualified to at least Level 2 by the National
Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters).
The Interpreter and the student should be familiar with each other and
the student should not be expected to use several different Interpreters
during successive examinations.
The Interpreter and the student should be given copies of these guidelines
prior to the examination.
The Interpreter should interpret the exact speech/sign as communicated
by the student or the examining officer.
The Interpreter should interpret no other speech/sign, nor go beyond
the student's or the examining officer's communications.
The Interpreter should not discuss any matters during the examination
with the student or the examining officer unless it relates to the communication
of examination questions/answers (eg, the student asks the Interpreter
to repeat a sentence).
The student should be allowed additional time due to the extra demands
(ie, skills/tasks) for the student in using an Interpreter.
The location and time of the examination should be approved by the Faculty
Examination Section, or other relevant assessment authority.
APPENDIX B - Possible Guidelines When Using a Reader
The Reader should be approved by the University prior to the examination.
If possible, the Reader and the student should be familiar with each other,
and the student should not be expected to use several different Readers
during successive examinations.
The Reader and the student should be given copies of these guidelines
prior to the examination.
The Reader should read to the student the exact text of the examination
question(s).
The Reader should make no other comment or use any intonation which emphasises
any part of the examination question(s), nor make any interpretation of
the examination question(s).
The Reader should not discuss any matters during the examination with
the student unless it relates to the re-reading of an examination question
(eg, if the student asks the Reader to repeat an examination question).
The student should be allowed additional time due to the extra demands
(ie, skills/tasks) for the student in using a Reader.
The location and time of the examination should be approved by the Faculty
Examination Section, or other relevant assessment authority.
(Adapted from University of Wollongong policy. Modifications have been
made.)
APPENDIX C - Possible Guidelines When Using a Scribe
The Scribe should be approved by the University prior to the examination.
If possible, the Scribe and the student should be familiar with each other,
and the student should not be expected to use several different Scribes
during successive examinations.
The Scribe and the student should be given copies of these guidelines
prior to the examination.
The Scribe should write the exact text as communicated by the student
- orally, through interpreted sign language, by finger spelling, or any
other appropriate medium.
The Scribe should write no other text, nor go beyond the student's communication.
The Scribe should not discuss any matters during the examination with
the student unless it relates to the student's communication of examination
answers (eg, the scribe asks the student to repeat a sentence).
The student should be allowed additional time due to the extra demands
(ie, skills/tasks) for the student in using this strategy. The location
and time of the examination should be approved by the Faculty Examination
Section, or other relevant assessment authority.
(Adapted from University of Wollongong policy. Modifications have been
made.)
APPENDIX D - Possible Guidelines When Using a Personal
Assistant
The Personal Assistant and the student should be familiar with each other,
and the student should not be expected to use several Personal Assistants
during successive examinations.
The Personal Assistant and the student should be given copies of these
guidelines prior to the examination.
The Personal Assistant should not discuss any matters during the examination
with the student unless it relates to the student's need for personal
care or assistance with manual tasks.
The student should be allowed additional time due to any additional demands
(ie, skills/tasks) for the student in using a Personal Assistant.
The location and time of the examination should be approved by the Faculty
Examination Section, or other relevant assessment authority.
For further information
Queensland
Ms Nancy Rogers
Disabilities Coordinator
Student Services
Griffith University QLD 4111
Telephone: (07) 875 7280
Facsimile: (07) 875 5360
Ms Merindi Derrick
Equal Academic Opportunity
Coordinator
Academic Secretariat
Griffith University QLD 4111
Telephone: (07) 875 5372
Email: M.Derrick@as.gu.edu.au.
CAMPUS ADDRESSES
Griffith University QLD
Gold Coast University College of Griffith University
PMB 50
Gold Coast Mail Centre QLD 4217
Queensland Conservatorium of Music
Griffith University
PO Box 636
George Street
MACKAY QLD 4002
Queensland Conservatorium of Music, Griffith University
PO Box 636
MACKAY QLD 4740
Queensland College of Art, Griffith University
PO Box 84
MORNINGSIDE QLD 4170
* this is the official address for both the Nathan and Mt Gravatt campuses
as well as the University as a whole.
Australian Capital Territory
Ms Margaret Miller
Disability Liaison Officer
H Block
Old Administration Area
Australian National University
Telephone: (06) 249 5036
Facsimile: (06) 249 5582
Mr John Galvin
Equity Officer (disabilities)
University of Canberra
PO Box 1
Belconnen ACT 2616
Telephone: (06) 201 2990
Facsimile: (06) 201 5140
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